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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Information mapping</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;">

Topics and fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;">

<ul><li><a href="Business_decision_mapping" title="Business decision mapping">Business decision mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_and_information_visualization" title="Data and information visualization">Data visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphic_communication" title="Graphic communication">Graphic communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Infographic" title="Infographic">Infographics</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_design" title="Information design">Information design</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge visualization">Knowledge visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_model" title="Mental model">Mental model</a></li>

<li><a href="Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)" title="Morphological analysis (problem-solving)">Morphological analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology (information science)</a></li>

<li><a href="Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">Schema (psychology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_language" title="Visual language">Visual language</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;">

Node–link approaches</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;">

<ul><li><a href="Argument_map" title="Argument map">Argument map</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">Cognitive map</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Concept lattice">Concept lattice</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_map" title="Concept map">Concept map</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptual_graph" title="Conceptual graph">Conceptual graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_tree" title="Decision tree">Decision tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Dendrogram" title="Dendrogram">Dendrogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperbolic_tree" title="Hyperbolic tree">Hyperbolic tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Issue-based_information_system" title="Issue-based information system">Issue map</a></li>

<li><a href="Issue_tree" title="Issue tree">Issue tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Layered_graph_drawing" title="Layered graph drawing">Layered graph drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-role_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-role modeling">Object-role modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">Organizational chart</a></li>

<li><a href="Pathfinder_network" title="Pathfinder network">Pathfinder network</a></li>

<li><a href="Radial_tree" title="Radial tree">Radial tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociogram" title="Sociogram">Sociogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Topic_map" title="Topic map">Topic map</a></li>

<li><a href="Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">Tree structure</a></li>

<li><a href="ZigZag_(software)" title="ZigZag (software)">ZigZag</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;">

See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;">

<ul>

<li><a href="Diagrammatic_reasoning" title="Diagrammatic reasoning">Diagrammatic reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">Entity–relationship model</a></li>

<li><a href="Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_concept-_and_mind-mapping_software" title="List of concept- and mind-mapping software">List of concept- and mind-mapping software</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology (philosophy)</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_structuring_methods" title="Problem structuring methods">Problem structuring methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Treemapping" title="Treemapping">Treemapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">Wicked problem</a></li></ul></td>

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<p>A <b>design rationale</b> is an explicit documentation of the <a href="Reasons" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasons">reasons</a> behind <a href="Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decisions</a> made when <a href="Design" title="Design">designing</a> a <a href="System" title="System">system</a> or <a href="Artifact_(software_development)" title="Artifact (software development)">artifact</a>. As initially developed by W.R. Kunz and <a href="Horst_Rittel" title="Horst Rittel">Horst Rittel</a>, design rationale seeks to provide <a href="Argumentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Argumentation">argumentation</a>-based structure to the political, collaborative process of addressing <a href="Wicked_problems" class="mw-redirect" title="Wicked problems">wicked problems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kunz,_W._1970_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunz,_W._1970-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>A design rationale is the explicit listing of <a href="Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decisions</a> made during a <a href="Design_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Design process">design process</a>, and the reasons why those decisions were made.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarczyk,_Alex_P._1992_pp._577-586_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarczyk,_Alex_P._1992_pp._577-586-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its primary goal is to support <a href="Designer" title="Designer">designers</a> by providing a means to <a href="Document" title="Document">record</a> and <a href="Communicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Communicate">communicate</a> the argumentation and reasoning behind the design process.<sup id="cite_ref-HoAt06_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoAt06-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

It should therefore include:<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>the reasons behind a design decision,</li>

<li>the justification for it,</li>

<li>the other alternatives considered,</li>

<li>the trade offs evaluated, and</li>

<li>the argumentation that led to the decision.</li></ul>

<p>Several science areas are involved in the study of design rationales, such as <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a><sup id="cite_ref-Jarczyk,_Alex_P._1992_pp._577-586_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarczyk,_Alex_P._1992_pp._577-586-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-HoAt06_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoAt06-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr00_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr00-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For supporting design rationale, various frameworks have been proposed, such as QOC, DRCS, <a href="Issue-Based_Information_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Issue-Based Information System">IBIS</a>, and DRL.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>While argumentation formats can be traced back to <a href="Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>'s work in the 1950s<sup id="cite_ref-Toul50_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toul50-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> datums, claims, warrants, backings and rebuttals, the origin of design rationale can be traced back to W.R. Kunz and <a href="Horst_Rittel" title="Horst Rittel">Horst Rittel</a>'s<sup id="cite_ref-Kunz,_W._1970_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunz,_W._1970-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> development of the <a href="Issue-Based_Information_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Issue-Based Information System">Issue-Based Information System</a> (IBIS) notation in 1970. Several variants on IBIS have since been proposed.

</p>

<ul><li>The first was Procedural Hierarchy of Issues (PHI), first described in Ray McCall's PhD Dissertation<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although not named at the time.</li>

<li>IBIS was also modified, in this case to support Software Engineering, by Potts & Bruns.<sup id="cite_ref-PoBu88_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoBu88-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Potts & Bruns approach was then extended by the Decision Representation Language (DRL).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which itself was extended by RATSpeak.<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr00_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr00-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Questions Options and Criteria (QOC), also known as Design Space Analysis<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an alternative representation for argumentation-based rationale, as are Win-Win<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Decision Recommendation and Intent Model (DRIM).<sup id="cite_ref-Pena-Mora,_F._1993_pp._213-221_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pena-Mora,_F._1993_pp._213-221-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>The first Rationale Management System (RMS) was PROTOCOL, which supported PHI, which was followed by other PHI-based systems MIKROPOLIS and PHIDIAS. The first system providing IBIS support was <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Dehlinger" class="extiw external" title="de:Hans Dehlinger">Hans Dehlinger</a>'s STIEC.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rittel developed a small system in 1983 (also not published) and the better known <a href="GIBIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIBIS">gIBIS</a> (graphical IBIS) was developed in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Not all successful DR approaches involve structured argumentation. For example, Carroll and Rosson's Scenario-Claims Analysis approach<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> captures rationale in scenarios that describe how the system is used and how well the system features support the user goals. Carroll and Rosson's approach to design rationale is intended to help designers of computer software and hardware identify underlying design tradeoffs and make inferences about the impact of potential design interventions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_concepts_in_design_rationale">Key concepts in design rationale</h2></div>

<p>There are a number of ways to characterize DR approaches. Some key distinguishing features are how it is captured, how it is represented, and how it can be used.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rationale_capture">Rationale capture</h3></div>

<p><i>Rationale capture</i> is the process of acquiring rationale information to a rationale management

</p>

<dl><dt>Capture methods</dt></dl>

<ul><li>A method called "Reconstruction"<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> captures rationales in a raw form such as video, and then reconstruct them into a more structured form.<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr98_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr98-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advantage of Reconstruction method is that rationales can be carefully captured and capturing process won't disrupt the designer. But this method might result in high cost and biases of the person producing the rationales</li>

<li>The "Record-and-replay"<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> method simply captures rationales as they unfold. Rationales are synchronously captured in a <a href="Video_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Video conference">video conference</a> or asynchronously captured via <a href="Bulletin_board" title="Bulletin board">bulletin board</a> or email-based discussion. If the system has informal and semi-formal representation, the method will be helpful.</li>

<li>The "Methodological byproduct"<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> method captures rationales during the process of design following a schema. But it's hard to design such a schema. The advantage of this method is its low cost.</li>

<li>With a rich knowledge base (KB) created in advance, the "Apprentice"<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> method captures rationales by asking questions when confusing or disagreeing with the designer's action. This method benefits not only the user but the system.</li>

<li>In "Automatic Generation"<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> method, design rationales are automatically generated from an execution history at low cost. It has the ability in maintaining consistent and up-to-date rationales. But the cost of compiling the execution history is high due to the complexity and difficulty of some machine-learning problems.</li>

<li>The "Historian"<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> method let a person or computer program watches all designer's actions but does not make suggestions. Rationales are captured during the design process.<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr98_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr98-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rationale_representation">Rationale representation</h3></div>

<p>The choice of design rationale representation is very important to make sure that the rationales we capture is what we desire and we can use efficiently. According to the degree of formality, the approaches that are used to represent design rationale can be divided into three main categories: informal, semiformal, or formal.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the informal representation, rationales can be recorded and captured by just using our traditionally accepted methods and media, such as word processors, audio and video records or even hand writings. However, these descriptions make it hard for automatic interpretation or other computer-based supports. In the formal representation, the rationale must be collected under a strict format so that the rationale can be interpreted and understood by computers. However, due to the strict format of rationale defined by formal representations, the contents can hardly be understood by human being and the process of capturing design rationale will require more efforts to finish, and therefore becomes more intrusive.

</p><p>Semiformal representations try to combine the advantages of informal and formal representations. On one hand, the information captured should be able to be processed by computers so that more computer based support can be provided. On the other hand, the procedure and method used to capture information of design rationale should not be very intrusive. In the system with a semiformal representation, the information expected is suggested and the users can capture rationale by following the instructions to either fill out the attributes according to some templates or just type into natural language descriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argumentation-based_models">Argumentation-based models</h3></div>

<dl><dt>The Toulmin model</dt>

<dd>One commonly accepted way for semiformal design rationale representation is structuring design rationale as argumentation.<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr00_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr00-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest argumentation-based model used by many design rationale systems is the Toulmin model.<sup id="cite_ref-Toul50_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toul50-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Stephen_Toulmin#The_Toulmin_Model_of_Argument" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin model</a> defines the rules of design rationale argumentation with six steps:<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ol><li>Claim is made;</li>

<li>Supporting data are provided;</li>

<li>Warrant provides evidence to the existing relations;</li>

<li>Warrant can be supported by a backing;</li>

<li>Model qualifiers (some, many, most, etc.) are provided;</li>

<li>Possible rebuttals are also considered.</li></ol></dd>

<dd>One advantage of Toulmin model is that it uses words and concepts which can be easily understood by most people.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)</dt>

<dd>Another important approach to argumentation of design rationale is Rittel and Kunz's IBIS (<a href="Issue-Based_Information_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Issue-Based Information System">Issue-Based Information System</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Kunz,_W._1970_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kunz,_W._1970-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is actually not a software system but an argumentative notation. It has been implemented in software form by <a href="GIBIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIBIS">gIBIS</a> (graphical IBIS), itIBIS (test-based IBIS), <a href="Compendium_(software)" title="Compendium (software)">Compendium</a>, and other software.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IBIS uses some rationale elements (denoted as nodes) such as issues, positions, arguments, resolutions and several relationships such as more general than, logical successor to, temporal successor to, replaces and similar to, to link the issue discussions.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Procedural Hierarchy of Issues (PHI)</dt>

<dd>PHI (Procedural Hierarchy of Issues)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> extended IBIS to noncontroversial issues and redefined the relationships. PHI adds the subissue relationship which means one issue's resolution depends on the resolution of another issue.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Questions, Options, and Criteria (QOC)</dt>

<dd>QOC (Questions, Options, and Criteria)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is used for design space analysis. Similar to IBIS, QOC identifies the key design problems as questions and possible answers to questions as options. In addition, QOC uses criteria to explicitly describe the methods to evaluate the options, such as the requirements to be satisfied or the properties desired. The options are linked with criteria positively or negatively and these links are defined as assessments.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Decision Representation Language (DRL)</dt>

<dd>DRL (Decision Representation Language)<sup id="cite_ref-Lee91_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee91-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> extends the Potts and Bruns model of DR<sup id="cite_ref-PoBu88_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoBu88-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and defines the primary elements as decision problems, alternatives, goals, claims and groups. Lee (1991) has argued that DRL is more expressive than other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee91_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee91-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DRL focuses more on the representation of decision making and its rationale instead of on design rationale.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>RATSpeak</dt>

<dd>Based on DRL, RATSpeak is developed and used as the representation language in SEURAT (Software Engineering Using RATionale).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RATSpeak takes into account requirements (functional and non-functional) as part of the arguments for alternatives to the decision problems. SEURAT also includes an Argument Ontology which is a hierarchy of argument types and includes the types of claims used in the system.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>WinWin Spiral Model</dt>

<dd>The WinWin Spiral Model, which is used in the WinWin approach,<sup id="cite_ref-BoKi06_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoKi06-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adds the WinWin negotiation activities, including identifying key stakeholders of the systems, and identifying the win conditions of each stakeholder and negotiation, into the front of each cycle of the <a href="Spiral_model" title="Spiral model">spiral software development model</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in order to achieve a mutually satisfactory (winwin) agreement for all stakeholders of the project.</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>In the WinWin Spiral Model, the goals of each stakeholder are defined as Win conditions. Once there is a conflict between win conditions, it is captured as an Issue. Then the stakeholders invent Options and explore trade-offs to resolve the issue. When the issue is solved, an Agreement which satisfies the win conditions of stakeholders and captures the agreed option is achieved. Design rationale behind the decisions is captured during the process of the WinWin model and will be used by stakeholders and the designers to improve their later decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-BoKi06_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoKi06-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The WinWin Spiral model reduces the overheads of the capture of design rationale by providing stakeholders a well-defined process to negotiate. In<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ontology of decision rationale is defined and their model utilizes the ontology to address the problem of supporting decision maintenance in the WinWin collaboration framework.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Design Recommendation and Intent Model (DRIM)</dt>

<dd>DRIM (Design Recommendation and Intent Model) is used in SHARED-DRIM.<sup id="cite_ref-Pena-Mora,_F._1993_pp._213-221_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pena-Mora,_F._1993_pp._213-221-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main structure of DRIM is a proposal which consists of the intents of each designer, the recommendations that satisfy the intents and the justifications of the recommendations. Negotiations are also needed when conflicts exist between the intents of different designers. The recommendation accepted becomes a design decision, and the rationale of the unaccepted but proposed recommendations are also recorded during this process, which can be useful during the iterative design and/or system maintenance.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<p>Design rationale has the potential to be used in many different ways. One set of uses, defined by Burge and Brown (1998),<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr98_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr98-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are:

</p>

<ul><li>Design verification — The design rationale can be used to verify if the design decisions and the product itself are the reflection of what the designers and the users actually wanted.</li>

<li>Design evaluation — The design rationale is used to evaluate the various design alternatives discussed during the design process.</li>

<li>Design maintenance — The design rationale helps to determine the changes that are necessary to modify the design.</li>

<li>Design reuse — The design rationale is used to determine how the existing design could be reused for a new requirement with or without any changes in it. If there is a need to modify the design, then the DR also suggests what needs to be modified in the design.</li>

<li>Design teaching — The design rationale could be used as a resource to teach people who are unfamiliar with the design and the system.</li>

<li>Design communication — The design rationale facilitates better communication among people who are involved in the design process and thus helps to come up with a better design.</li>

<li>Design assistance — The design rationale could be used to verify the design decisions made during the design process.</li>

<li>Design documentation — The design rationale is used to document the entire design process which involves the meeting room deliberations, alternatives discussed, reasons behind the design decisions and the product overview.</li></ul>

<p>DR is used by research communities in software engineering, mechanical design, artificial intelligence, civil engineering, and human-computer interaction research. In software engineering, it could be used to support the designers ideas during requirement analysis, capturing and documenting design meetings and predicting possible issues due to new design approach.<sup id="cite_ref-DMM06_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DMM06-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">software architecture</a> and outsourcing solution design, it can justify the outcome of <a href="Architectural_decision" title="Architectural decision">architectural decisions</a> and serve as a design guide.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

In civil engineering, it helps to coordinate the variety of work that the designers do at the same time in different areas of a construction project. It also help the designers to understand and respect each other's ideas and resolve any possible issues.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The DR can also be used by the project managers to maintain their project plan and the project status up to date. Also, the project team members who missed a design meeting can refer back the DR to learn what was discussed on a particular topic. The unresolved issues captured in DR could be used to organize further meetings on those topics.<sup id="cite_ref-DMM06_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DMM06-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Design rationale helps the designers to avoid the same mistakes made in the previous design. This can also be helpful to avoid duplication of work.<sup id="cite_ref-BuBr00_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuBr00-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases DR could save time and money when a software system is upgraded from its previous versions.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarczyk,_Alex_P._1992_pp._577-586_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarczyk,_Alex_P._1992_pp._577-586-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There are several books and articles that provide excellent surveys of rationale approaches applied to HCI,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineering Design<sup id="cite_ref-Lee97_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee97-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Software Engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Goal_structuring_notation" title="Goal structuring notation">Goal structuring notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Method_engineering" title="Method engineering">Method engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_structuring_methods" title="Problem structuring methods">Problem structuring methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFRittelNoble1989" class="citation techreport cs1"><a href="Horst_Rittel" title="Horst Rittel">Rittel, Horst W. J.</a>; Noble, Douglas (January 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cumincad.architexturez.net/system/files/pdf/ca71.content.pdf"><i>Issue-based information systems for design</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Technical report). Berkeley, CA: Institute of Urban and Regional Development, <a href="University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/20155825">20155825</a>. 492.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCall, R.J. (1991). "PHI: A Conceptual Foundation for Design Hypermedia". <i>Design Studies</i> 12 (1): 30–41.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maclean, A.; Young, RM.; Bellotti, VME.; Moran, T. (1996), "Questions, Options, and Criteria: Elements of Design Space Analysis", in Moran, T.; Carroll, J., <i>Design Rationale Concepts, Techniques, and Use</i>, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 53-106</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lee91-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee91_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee91_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, J. (1991), "Extending the Potts and Bruns model for recording design rationale", <i>Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Software Engineering</i> (ICSE '13), IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA, pp. 114-125</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burge, J. (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/ETD/Available/etd-050205-085625/"><i>Software Engineering Using design RATionale</i></a>, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Computer Science Dept</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-BoKi06-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BoKi06_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BoKi06_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Barry_Boehm" title="Barry Boehm">Barry Boehm</a>; Kitapci, H. (2006), "The WinWin Approach: Using a Requirement Negotiation Tool for Rationale Capture and Use", in Dutoit, A.H.; McCall, R.; Mistrík, I. et al., <i>Rationale Management in Software Engineering</i>, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 173-190</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Barry_Boehm" title="Barry Boehm">Barry Boehm</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.usu.edu/~supratik/CS%205370/r5061.pdf">"A spiral model of software development and enhancement"</a>. <i>Computer</i> 21 (5): 61–72</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bose, P. (1995). "A Model for Decision Maintenance in the WinWin Collaboration Framework". <i>Knowledge Based Software Engineering </i> (KBSE '95).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-DMM06-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DMM06_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DMM06_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dutoit, A.; McCall, B.; Mistrik et al., eds. (2006), <i>Rationale Management in Software Engineering</i>, Springer pp.1-48.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O. Zimmermann, C. Miksovic, J. Küster, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soadecisions.org/download/SDA-JSS-SpecialIssueWICSA2011v16FinalAuthorsVersion.pdf">Reference Architecture, Metamodel and Modeling Principles for Architectural Knowledge Management in Information Technology Services</a>. Journal of Systems and Software, Elsevier. Vol. 85, Issue 9, Sept. 2012</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whelton, Michael; Ballard, Glenn; Tommelein, Iris (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leanconstruction.org/pdf/DesignRationaleSystemsandProjectDefinitionIGLC9.pdf"><i>Application Of Design Rationale Systems To Project Definition – Establishing A Research Project</i>.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928113207/http://www.leanconstruction.org/pdf/DesignRationaleSystemsandProjectDefinitionIGLC9.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-09-28 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 27 April 2007</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moran, T.; Carroll, J., eds. (1996), <i>Design Rationale Concepts, Techniques, and Use</i>, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dutoit, Rationale Management in Software Engineering</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<dl><dt>Books</dt></dl>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBurgeCarroll,_JMMcCall_RMistrík_I2008" class="citation book cs1">Burge, JE; Carroll, JM; McCall R; Mistrík I (2008). <i>Rationale-Based Software Engineering</i>. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDutoitMcCall_RMistrík_IPaech_B2006" class="citation book cs1">Dutoit, AH; McCall R; Mistrík I; Paech B (2006). <i>Rationale Management in Software Engineering</i>. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFConklin2005" class="citation book cs1">Conklin, J (2005). <i>Dialogue Mapping</i>. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKirschnerBuckingham-Shum_SJCarr_CS2003" class="citation book cs1">Kirschner, PA; Buckingham-Shum SJ; Carr CS (2003). <i>Visualizing Argumentation: Software Tools for Collaborative and Educational Sense-Making</i>. London: Springer-Verlag.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMoranCarroll_J1996" class="citation book cs1">Moran, T; Carroll J (1996). <i>Design Rationale Concepts, Techniques, and Use</i>. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</cite></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Special Issues</dt></dl>

<ul><li>Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing (AIEDAM), Special Issue: Fall 2008, Vol.22 No.4 Design Rationale <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://web.cs.wpi.edu/~aiedam/SpecialIssues/Burge-Bracewell.html">http://web.cs.wpi.edu/~aiedam/SpecialIssues/Burge-Bracewell.html</a></li>

<li>Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing (AIEDAM), Special Issue on Representing and Using Design Rationale, 1997, Vol.11 No.2, Cambridge University Press</li></ul>

<dl><dt>Workshops</dt></dl>

<ul><li>Second Workshop on SHAring and Reusing architectural Knowledge - Architecture, rationale, and Design Intent (SHARK/ADI 2007), (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.rug.nl/~paris/SHARK-ADI2007">RC.rug.nl</a>) as part of the 29th Int. Conf. on Software Engineering (ICSE 2007) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web4.cs.ucl.ac.uk/icse07">CS.ucl.ac.uk</a>)</li>

<li>Workshop on Design Rationale: Problems and Progress (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.muohio.edu/burgeje/DRWorkshopDCC06.html">Muohio.edu</a>)</li>

<li>Workshop Chairs: Janet Burge and Rob Bracewell, Held 9 July 2006 in conjunction with Design, Computing, and Cognition '06. Eindhoven, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwwfaculty.arch.usyd.edu.au/kcdc/conferences/dcc06/">wwwfaculty.arch.usyd.edu.au</a>) Netherlands</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bcisive.austhink.com">Bcisive.austhink.com</a>: A commercial software package designed for design rationale and decision rationale more broadly. Graphical interface, sharing capabilities.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110704173005/http://compendium.open.ac.uk/institute/">Compendium</a>: A hypermedia tool that provides visual knowledge management capabilities based around IBIS. Free Java application, binary and source, with an active user community who meet annually.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/designengineering/tools/designvue">designVUE</a>: A tool for visual knowledge capture based on IBIS and other methods. Free Java application.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.miamioh.edu/burgeje/SEURAT">SEURAT</a>: An Eclipse plug-in that integrates rationale capture and use with a software development environment. SEURAT is available as an open source project in GitHub (<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://github.com/burgeje/SEURAT">[1]</a>).</li></ul>

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<li><a href="Electrical_system_design" title="Electrical system design">Electrical system design</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Experimental design</a></li>

<li><a href="Filter_design" title="Filter design">Filter design</a></li>

<li><a href="Geometric_design" title="Geometric design">Geometric design</a></li>

<li><a href="Work_design" title="Work design">Work design</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_circuit_design" title="Integrated circuit design">Integrated circuit design</a>

<ul><li><a href="Circuit_design" title="Circuit design">Circuit design</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_design_(electronics)" title="Physical design (electronics)">Physical design</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_network_design_(IC)" title="Power network design (IC)">Power network design</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">Mechanism design</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Nuclear weapon design</a></li>

<li><a href="Nucleic_acid_design" title="Nucleic acid design">Nucleic acid design</a></li>

<li><a href="Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Organization design</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_design" title="Process design">Process design</a></li>

<li><a href="Processor_design" title="Processor design">Processor design</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein_design" title="Protein design">Protein design</a></li>

<li><a href="Research_design" title="Research design">Research design</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_design" title="Social design">Social design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Spacecraft_design" title="Spacecraft design">Spacecraft design</a></li>

<li><a href="Strategic_design" title="Strategic design">Strategic design</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design">Systems design</a></li>

<li><a href="Test_design" title="Test design">Test design</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Approaches56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Approaches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_design" title="Active design">Active</a></li>

<li><a href="Activity-centered_design" title="Activity-centered design">Activity-centered</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_web_design" title="Adaptive web design">Adaptive web</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_design" title="Affective design">Affective</a></li>

<li><a href="Brainstorming" title="Brainstorming">Brainstorming</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_committee" title="Design by committee">By committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">By contract</a></li>

<li><a href="C-K_theory" title="C-K theory">C-K theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_closure" title="Design closure">Closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Configuration_design" title="Configuration design">Configuration</a></li>

<li><a href="Contextual_design" title="Contextual design">Contextual</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuous_design" title="Continuous design">Continuous</a></li>

<li><a href="Cradle-to-cradle_design" title="Cradle-to-cradle design">Cradle-to-cradle</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_problem-solving" title="Creative problem-solving">Creative problem-solving</a></li>

<li><a href="Creativity_techniques" title="Creativity techniques">Creativity techniques</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_design" title="Critical design">Critical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Design_fiction" title="Design fiction">Design fiction</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Defensive_design" title="Defensive design">Defensive</a></li>

<li><a href="Design%E2%80%93bid%E2%80%93build" title="Design–bid–build">Design–bid–build</a></li>

<li><a href="Design%E2%80%93build" title="Design–build">Design–build</a>

<ul><li><a href="Architect-led_design%E2%80%93build" class="mw-redirect" title="Architect-led design–build">architect-led</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Diffuse_design" title="Diffuse design">Diffuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-driven_design" title="Domain-driven design">Domain-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_neutral_design" title="Energy neutral design">Energy neutral</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_design_process" title="Engineering design process">Engineering design process</a>

<ul><li><a href="Probabilistic_design" title="Probabilistic design">Probabilistic design</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomic_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergonomic design">Ergonomic</a></li>

<li><a href="Error-tolerant_design" title="Error-tolerant design">Error-tolerant</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_design" title="Evidence-based design">Evidence-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault-tolerant_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault-tolerant design">Fault-tolerant</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_design" title="Feminist design">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_for_assembly" title="Design for assembly">For assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_design" title="Behavioural design">For behaviour change</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_for_manufacturability" title="Design for manufacturability">For manufacturability</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_for_Six_Sigma" title="Design for Six Sigma">For Six Sigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_for_testing" title="Design for testing">For testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_for_the_environment" title="Design for the environment">For the environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Framework-oriented_design" title="Framework-oriented design">Framework-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_design" title="Functional design">Functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_design" title="Generative design">Generative</a></li>

<li><a href="Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li>

<li><a href="High-level_design" title="High-level design">High-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Hostile_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Hostile design">Hostile</a></li>

<li><a href="Inclusive_design" title="Inclusive design">Inclusive</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_design" title="Integrated design">Integrated</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_topside_design" title="Integrated topside design">Integrated topside</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence-based_design" title="Intelligence-based design">Intelligence-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Iterative_design" title="Iterative design">Iterative</a></li>

<li><a href="KISS_principle" title="KISS principle">KISS principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-level_design" title="Low-level design">Low-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Metadesign" title="Metadesign">Metadesign</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind_map" title="Mind map">Mind mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_design" title="Modular design">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-oriented design">Object-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Parametric_design" title="Parametric design">Parametric</a></li>

<li><a href="Participatory_design" title="Participatory design">Participatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Platform-based_design" title="Platform-based design">Platform-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Policy-based_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Policy-based design">Policy-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Prevention_through_design" title="Prevention through design">Prevention through</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-centered_design" title="Process-centered design">Process-centered</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_interest_design" title="Public interest design">Public interest</a>

<ul><li><a href="Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rational_design" title="Rational design">Rational</a></li>

<li><a href="Regenerative_design" title="Regenerative design">Regenerative</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Research-based_design" title="Research-based design">Research-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Responsibility-driven_design" title="Responsibility-driven design">Responsibility-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Speculative_design" title="Speculative design">Speculative</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemic_design" title="Systemic design">Systemic</a>

<li><a href="Tableless_web_design" title="Tableless web design">Tableless web</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_constraints" title="Theory of constraints">Theory of constraints</a></li>

<li><a href="Top-down_and_bottom-up_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Top-down and bottom-up design">Top-down and bottom-up</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_design" title="Transformation design">Transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgenerational_design" title="Transgenerational design">Transgenerational</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_design" title="Universal design">Universal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Design_for_All_(in_ICT)" title="Design for All (in ICT)">Design for All</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Usage-centered_design" title="Usage-centered design">Usage-centered</a></li>

<li><a href="Use-centered_design" title="Use-centered design">Use-centered</a></li>

<li><a href="User-centered_design" title="User-centered design">User-centered</a>

<ul><li><a href="Empathic_design" title="Empathic design">Empathic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="User_innovation" title="User innovation">User innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Value-driven_design" title="Value-driven design">Value-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Value_sensitive_design" title="Value sensitive design">Value sensitive</a>

<ul><li><a href="Privacy_by_design" title="Privacy by design">Privacy by</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_by_design" title="Quality by design">Quality by</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_by_design" title="Secure by design">Secure by</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Design <a href="Design_choice" title="Design choice">choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_computing" title="Design computing">computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_controls" title="Design controls">controls</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_culture" title="Design culture">culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Design justice">justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_leadership" title="Design leadership">leadership</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_management" title="Design management">management</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_marker" title="Design marker">marker</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_methods" title="Design methods">methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_pattern" title="Design pattern">pattern</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_research" title="Design research">research</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_science" title="Design science">science</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_sprint" title="Design sprint">sprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_strategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Design strategy">strategy</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_theory" title="Design theory">theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_thinking" title="Design thinking">thinking</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="ToolsIntellectual_propertyOrganizationsAwards56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Tools</li><li>Intellectual property</li><li>Organizations</li><li>Awards</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Design_tool" title="Design tool">Tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Architectural_model" title="Architectural model">Architectural model</a></li>

<li><a href="Blueprint" title="Blueprint">Blueprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Comprehensive_layout" title="Comprehensive layout">Comprehensive layout</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_home_design_software" title="Virtual home design software">Virtual home design software</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Computer-automated_design" title="Computer-automated design">CAutoD</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_quality_indicator" title="Design quality indicator">Design quality indicator</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Flowchart" title="Flowchart">Flowchart</a></li>

<li><a href="Mockup" title="Mockup">Mockup</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_specification" title="Design specification">Design specification</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_system" title="Design system">Design system</a></li>

<li><a href="Prototype" title="Prototype">Prototype</a></li>

<li><a href="Sketch_(drawing)" title="Sketch (drawing)">Sketch</a></li>

<li><a href="Storyboard" title="Storyboard">Storyboard</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="HTML_editor" title="HTML editor">HTML editor</a></li>

<li><a href="Website_wireframe" title="Website wireframe">Website wireframe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intellectual<br>property</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clean-room_design" title="Clean-room design">Clean-room design</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Community design">Community design</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_around" title="Design around">Design around</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_infringement" title="Design infringement">Design infringement</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_patent" title="Design patent">Design patent</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_design_copyright" title="Fashion design copyright">Fashion design copyright</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Geschmacksmuster" title="Geschmacksmuster">Geschmacksmuster</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design rights</a>

<ul><li><a href="Industrial_design_rights_in_the_European_Union" title="Industrial design rights in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Institute_of_Graphic_Arts" title="American Institute of Graphic Arts">American Institute of Graphic Arts</a></li>

<li><a href="Chartered_Society_of_Designers" title="Chartered Society of Designers">Chartered Society of Designers</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_and_Industries_Association" title="Design and Industries Association">Design and Industries Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_Council" title="Design Council">Design Council</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Forum_Design" title="International Forum Design">International Forum Design</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_Research_Society" title="Design Research Society">Design Research Society</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Design_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="European Design Award">European Design Award</a></li>

<li><a href="German_Design_Award" title="German Design Award">German Design Award</a></li>

<li><a href="Good_Design_Award_(Museum_of_Modern_Art)" title="Good Design Award (Museum of Modern Art)">Good Design Award (Museum of Modern Art)</a></li>

<li><a href="Good_Design_Award_(Chicago_Athenaeum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Design Award (Chicago Athenaeum)">Good Design Award (Chicago Athenaeum)</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphex" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphex">Graphex</a></li>

<li><a href="IF_Product_Design_Award" title="IF Product Design Award">IF Product Design Award</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Dyson_Award" title="James Dyson Award">James Dyson Award</a></li>

<li><a href="Prince_Philip_Designers_Prize" title="Prince Philip Designers Prize">Prince Philip Designers Prize</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_topics56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_art" title="Concept art">Concept art</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptual_design" title="Conceptual design">Conceptual design</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_industries" title="Creative industries">Creative industries</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_icon" title="Cultural icon">Cultural icon</a></li>

<li><a href=".design" title=".design">.design</a></li>

<li><a href="Dominant_design" title="Dominant design">Dominant design</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futures studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Indie_design" title="Indie design">Indie design</a></li>

<li><a href="Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">Innovation management</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li>

<li><a href="Lean_startup" title="Lean startup">Lean startup</a></li>

<li><a href="New_product_development" title="New product development">New product development</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_simulation" title="Process simulation">Process simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference_design" title="Reference design">Reference design</a></li>

<li><a href="Slow_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Slow design">Slow design</a></li>

<li><a href="STEAM_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="STEAM fields">STEAM fields</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Unintelligent design</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">Wicked problem</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>Design <a href="List_of_system_quality_attributes" title="List of system quality attributes">attributes</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_brief" title="Design brief">brief</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_change" title="Design change">change</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_classic" title="Design classic">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_competition" title="Design competition">competition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Architectural_design_competition" title="Architectural design competition">architectural</a></li>

<li><a href="Student_design_competition" title="Student design competition">student</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Design_director" title="Design director">director</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_education" title="Design education">education</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_elements" title="Design elements">elements</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">engineer</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_history" title="Design history">history</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_knowledge" title="Design knowledge">knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_language" title="Design language">language</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_museum" title="Design museum">museum</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_optimization" title="Design optimization">optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_paradigm" title="Design paradigm">paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_principles" title="Design principles">principles</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_review" title="Design review">review</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_specification" title="Design specification">specification</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_studies" title="Design studies">studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_studio" class="mw-redirect" title="Design studio">studio</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_technology" title="Design technology">technology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Knowledge_management77" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Knowledge_management77" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">Intellectual capital</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_intensive_services" title="Knowledge intensive services">Knowledge intensive services</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_intensive_business_services" title="Knowledge intensive business services">Knowledge intensive business services</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_organization_(management)" title="Knowledge organization (management)">Knowledge organization (management)</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_enterprise" title="Knowledge enterprise">Knowledge-intensive company</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">Knowledge sharing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronic systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_management_software" title="Knowledge management software">Knowledge management software</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">Business intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_content_management" title="Enterprise content management">Enterprise content management</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiki_software" title="Wiki software">Wiki software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">Tacit knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_knowledge_management" title="Personal knowledge management">Personal knowledge management</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Chief_knowledge_officer" title="Chief knowledge officer">Chief knowledge officer</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_team" title="Virtual team">Virtual team</a></li>

<li><a href="Communities_of_innovation" title="Communities of innovation">Communities of innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community of practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_of_interest" title="Community of interest">Community of interest</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Journal_of_Knowledge_Management" title="Journal of Knowledge Management">Journal of Knowledge Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_Management_Research_%26_Practice" title="Knowledge Management Research & Practice">Knowledge Management Research & Practice</a></li></ul>

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